Important Dates
1790 -
March 26: The U.S. Congress decrees that “any alien, being a free white person who shall have resided within the limits and under the jurisdiction of the United States for a term of two years, may be admitted to become a citizen thereof.” The phrase “free white person” remained intact until 1873 when “persons of African nativity or descent” was added. This act would be used to deny citizenship to Japanese and many other Asian immigrants until the 1952 Walter-McCarran Act.1841 -
June 27: Best known of the early Japanese arrivals to the Kingdom of Hawaii, Manjiro Nakahama eventually emigrates to the U.S. and is educated in Fairhaven, Massachusetts. Renamed John Mung, he later returns to Japan, where he serves as an interpreter for Commodore Perry, when the latter enters Tokyo Bay in 1853.1841 -
June 27: Best known of the early Japanese arrivals to the Kingdom of Hawaii, Manjiro Nakahama eventually emigrates to the U.S. and is educated in Fairhaven, Massachusetts. Renamed John Mung, he later returns to Japan, where he serves as an interpreter for Commodore Perry, when the latter enters Tokyo Bay in 1853.1844 -
U.S. and China sign a treaty to open the port of Shanghai to American ships. The treaty, coupled with the acquisition of California from Mexico (1848) and the need for coal stations, sparks U.S. interest in establishing relations with Japan.1851 -
Shipwrecked Japanese are taken to San Francisco, among them Hikozo Hamada, young son of a wealthy landowner. Baptized Joseph Heco, he becomes the first Japanese to gain U.S. citizenship through naturalization in 1858.1854 -
On orders from President Millard Fillmore, Commodore Matthew Perry sails into Edo (Tokyo) Bay for the second time to persuade Japan to open their doors to trade after 200 years of isolation. Japan signs the Treaty of Kanagawa on March 31, opening a few ports to Americans. Other treaties with European nations follow1858 -
Treaty of Ansei signed. Opens new ports in Japan and sets pattern of U.S.-Japan relations for the next fifty years.1860 -
First official Japanese delegation visits the U.S. Manjiro Nakahama serves as official interpreter.1861 -
While visiting England, Kanaye Nagasawa, son of a wealthy family in Japan, meets Thomas Lake Harris, minister of a utopian group in the U.S. He accompanies Harris to the U.S. They move to Santa Rosa in the 1800s where Harris buys a 2000-acre parcel and names it “Fountaingrove.” (See year 1892.)1869 -
First group of Japanese immigrants arrive in U.S. and establish the Wakamatsu Colony at Gold Hill in California.1870 -
Twelve Japanese admitted to U.S. Naval Academy by special act of Congress. Fifty-six Japanese counted in mainland U.S. There are now 63,000 Chinese in U.S., the majority, wage-earning workers.1872 -
Kentaro Kaneko, a student from Japan, admitted to Harvard and studies law under Oliver Wendell Holmes. Theodore Roosevelt was his classmate1880 -
U.S. Census reports 148 Japanese in the U.S1882 -
Congress passes Chinese Exclusion Act, which bars further Chinese immigration and prohibits Chinese from citizenship. Enforced from 1882 to 1892, it creates a labor shortageand is seen as a major reason for increased Japanese immigration to the Pacific Coast.1892 -
- Thomas Lake Harris (see 1861) sells interest in commune in Santa Rosa and leaves California. Kanaye Nagasawa assumes leadership and develops Fountaingrove estate into a highly successful commercial venture. Becomes first Japanese wine grower in California. Fountaingrove becomes popular center for many Sonoma County social events, visited by foreign dignitaries and other notables.
- The enforcement of the Chinese Exclusion Act creates a labor shortage and was seen as a major reason for increased immigration of Japanese to the Pacific Coast.
1893 -
A regulation passed by the San Francisco Board of Education provides for segregation of all Japanese children to a Chinese school. When the Japanese government protests, the regulation is withdrawn.1898 -
Hawaii annexed by the U.S. enabling approximately 60,000 Japanese residing in Hawaii to proceed to mainland U.S. without passports.
The Early Period
Historically, relations between Japan and the United States have influenced the manner in which the Japanese in the U.S. were treated. This chronology, therefore, includes events which mark that relationship.
II. Immigration and Anti-Japanese Activities
The vast majority of Japanese emigrated to the U.S. between 1900 and 1920.
1900 -
Under pressure from the U.S., the Japanese government stops issuing passports to laborers desiring entry to U.S. Since territory of Hawaii is not mentioned in agreement, Japanese continue to emigrate there.1902 -
White miners expel Japanese employed at the Yukon Mining Company at Atkin, Alaska.1903 -
Seito Saibara, a former member of the Japanese Diet, settles near Houston, Texas to begin a rice growing industry1904 -
San Francisco: The National Convention of the American Federation of Labor resolves to exclude Japanese, Chinese, and Koreans from membership. Japan declares war on Russia. Russia is badly defeated and American sentiment that is initially with Japan, soon turns antagonistic.1905 -
- Japan and Russia sign Portsmouth Treaty, with U.S. as mediator. Provisions of treaty cause outbursts of anti-government and anti-American feelings in Japan. Renewed anti-Japanese feelings swell in U.S.
- San Francisco Chronicle runs anti-Japanese series for a year and a half. California legislature urges U.S. Congress to limit Japanese immigration.
- Sixty-seven organizations meet in San Francisco to form Asiatic Exclusion League of San Francisco.
1906 -
San Francisco School Board orders segregation of 93 Japanese American students1907 -
- On orders from President Theodore Roosevelt, San Francisco School Board rescinds segregation order, but strong feelings against Japanese persist. Anti-Japanese riots break out in San Francisco in May, and again in October, much to the embarrassment of the U.S. government.
- Congress passes immigration bill forbidding Japanese laborers from entering the U.S. via Hawaii, Mexico, or Canada.
1908 -
U.S. Secretary of State Elihu Root and Foreign Minister Hayashi of Japan formalize the Gentlemen’s Agreement whereby Japan agrees not to issue visas to laborers wanting to emigrate to the U.S.1909 -
Anti-Japanese riots occur in Berkeley. U.S. leaders are alarmed at the tone and intensity of anti-Japanese legislation introduced in California legislature. (See year 1892.)1910 -
Twenty-seven anti-Japanese proposals are introduced in the California legislature. The White House urges Governor Hiram Johnson to seek moderation.1913 -
The Alien Land Law (Webb-Haney Act) is passed which denies “all aliens ineligible for citizenship” (includes all Asians except Filipinos, who are “subjects” of U.S.) the right to own land in California. Leasing of land is limited to three years. Similar laws are eventually adopted in Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Kansas, Louisiana, Missouri, and Minnesota.1915 -
The Hearst newspapers, historically hostile to Japanese, intensifies its “Yellow Peril” campaign with sensational headlines and editorials that fuel anti-Japanese feelings.1918 -
California’s Alien Land Law amended to close all loopholes. Forbids Issei from buying land in the names of their Nisei children (see date 1913).1920 -
Under pressure from the U.S., Japan stops issuing passports to so-called picture brides who had been emigrating to the U.S. since about 1910 to join husbands they married by proxy. This becomes effective in 1921.1922 -
- Supreme Court rules in Takeo Ozawa v. U.S. that naturalization is limited to “free white persons and aliens of African nativity,” thus legalizing previous practice of excluding Asians from citizenship.
- Congress passes Cable Act which provides that “any woman marrying an alien ineligible for citizenship shall cease to be an American citizen.” In practice, this meant that anyone marrying an Issei would automatically lose citizenship. In marriages terminated by death or divorce, a Caucasian woman could regain citizenship, whereas a Nisei woman could not. Act amended in 1931, allowing Nisei women married to Issei men to retain citizenship.
1924 -
Congress passes Immigration Exclusion Act, barring all immigration from Japan. Protests held throughout Japan. July 1 declared “Day of Humiliation.”1929 -
Japanese American Citizens League (JACL) organized with headquarters in San Francisco.1936 -
Cable Act is repealed.1937 -
- Japan invades China and captures Nanking, capital of Nationalist China.
- U.S. breaks off commercial relations with Japan.
- Britain and France declare war on Germany, signaling the beginning of World War II.